Britain in 1776
What does it mean to be living through history?
The year 1776 is remembered as a significant year both for the publication of Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations and the American Declaration of Independence. But what was it like to live through that great year? And did people at the time realize how significant it would be?
January 1776 saw continued preparation and mobilization of troops to suppress the rebellion in the American colonies. The British government, led by Lord North, remained committed to a military solution. Britain was in the process of finalizing agreements to hire German auxiliary troops (commonly called Hessians).
The war was controversial at home because some British citizens supported strong action against the colonies, whereas others sympathized with colonial grievances or opposed the expense of war. Pamphlets and newspapers in January reflected increasing political polarization.
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The most celebrated case of the previous year was closed with the execution at Tyburn on January 17th of Robert and Daniel Perreau. The two brothers were convicted of publishing a fraudulent bond, leading to death sentences despite their protests of innocence and pleas for clemency.. The bond in question was a forged instrument for £7,500 purportedly signed by army agent William Adair.
By February 1776, contracts were being implemented, troops were assembling for transport, and the use of foreign soldiers became a major propaganda issue, both in Britain and the colonies. Criticism of the war effort increased. Some writers warned of long-term consequences for the British Empire. Political clubs and coffeehouses became centres of discussion and argument.
Merchants continued to feel the impact of the conflict because trade with the American colonies was severely reduced, and shipping risks increased due to naval activity. Financial pressure on the government grew as borrowing continued to fund the war.
On the cultural front, the first volume of Edward Gibbon’s ‘The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire’ was published on February 17th, 1776. The entire work, covering the period from the second century AD to 1453, was a major, influential, and widely read publication of the Enlightenment.
In early March, British forces evacuated Boston after the Siege of Boston (the evacuation occurred on March 17th, though news reached Britain weeks later). This marked a significant setback early in the American Revolutionary War. The war became not just a military conflict, but a battle of ideas within Britain itself.
Adam Smith’s An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations was first published on March 9th, 1776. The landmark treatise, which laid the foundation for modern classical economics and free-market theories, was published in London.
James Watt demonstrated his first efficient, commercial steam engine on March 8th, 1776. The engine was installed at Bloomfield Colliery in Tipton, Staffordshire, and was set to work on Friday, March 8th, 1776, in the presence of its owners. This engine used a separate condenser, making it roughly 75% more fuel-efficient than the conventional Newcomen engines of the time.
By April, British and German auxiliaries were now embarking in large numbers. The strategy centered on seizing New York and rushing the rebellion through a decisive show of force. The Royal Navy co-ordinated one of the largest expeditionary fleets Britain had ever assembled.
Experiments in electricity continued across Britain, with static electricity machines demonstrated and early investigations into conductivity.
On the cultural front, James Boswell and others documented literary conversations and reactions to political and cultural events. The publication of pamphlets surged ahead.
Susannah Underwood, aged 15, was hanged at Gloucester on 19 April 1776 for setting fire to a barn and a haystack at Longhope. The Hereford Journal criticized the bad manners of the 15-year-old girl for refusing to shake hands with her master at her execution, but did not criticize the authorities for hanging her.
April also saw a big public scandal when the Duchess of Kingston was accused of bigamy — secretly marrying twice to secure wealth and status. She was tried as a peer in the House of Lords, found guilty, but avoided the customary punishment of being branded on the hand by pleading benefit of peerage, then fled in an open boat to Calais to avoid further legal proceedings, and never returned to the country.
By May 1776 war costs continued to rise. There was increased borrowing by the government and an ongoing strain on public finances. Trade with the American colonies remained disrupted.
It was reported that in cities like London, war dominated conversation in coffeehouses and public spaces. Recruitment and naval activity were visible parts of daily life.
Merchants faced losses and uncertainty, and Atlantic commerce was unstable.
By June 1776, Britain’s preparations for a major offensive in the American War of Independence were largely complete. Large fleets and armies were crossing the Atlantic, preparing to converge on New York.
Literary activity was dominated by political pamphlets and essays on empire, liberty, and governance.
James Watt’s improvements to the steam engine progressed, and Matthew Boulton’s Soho Manufactory constituted a hub of innovation.
John Constable, the painter, was born on June 11th.
Britain did not yet know that the colonies were about to declare independence on the 4th of July 1776. But reports suggested a growing unity among the colonies, and some observers suggested that a deeper break was coming. The news did not reach Britain in July, and it would take weeks (into August) for the document and its implications to become known.
Edmund Burke expressed his support for the “American English” (the colonists) and criticized the government of King George III and Lord North for using hired German mercenaries.
Despite public misgivings concerning the war, there were no instances of public disorder in Britain in July 1776, or indeed throughout the year.
On 27th August 1776, British forces under William Howe won a decisive victory at the Battle of Long Island. This was the first large-scale battle of Britain’s 1776 campaign. It demonstrated British military strength and the effectiveness of the newly assembled expeditionary force.
In August, reports on the Declaration were greeted with skepticism or anger, and public opinion hardened against the colonies. There was no public disturbance in August 1776, but the Royal Navy continued using impressment (press gangs) to recruit sailors, and this sometimes caused fights in port towns and small-scale riots or resistance. But these incidents were local and short-lived.
On the 25th of August, David Hume, one of the world’s greatest philosophers and a giant of the Enlightenment, died in Edinburgh. He was popularly regarded as a heretic and skeptic, and crowds gathered at his funeral to see “if the Devil would come to claim his own”. They left disappointed.
British forces under William Howe occupied New York City in September and established it as a major base for British operations for the rest of the war. And news of the great fire of New York on September 21st reached Britain. Much of the city was destroyed shortly after British occupation, and in Britain the cause was debated as to whether it was caused by accident or sabotage.
September 1776 saw a critical phase leading to major chemical discoveries of the late 18th century, including Joseph Priestley’s experiments that led to the discovery of Oxygen. Informal groups such as the Lunar Society were linking science, engineering, and business.
October saw continued British success in America, and news reaching Britain reinforced the sense that the war was going well.
James Watt and Matthew Boulton continued installing and refining steam engines, and business records and correspondence from the period show an active expansion of steam technology. Autumn 1776 was a period when Britain thought it was winning a war, but was simultaneously undergoing an economic revolution because of Adam Smith, a scientific shift because of Priestley and others, and an industrial transformation because of Watt & Boulton. These changes would ultimately matter far more than the temporary military successes.
The Rev. James Fordyce, author of the widely read Sermons to Young Women, died on October 1st.
November marked the high-water mark of British confidence in 1776. The war was going well, and newspapers and pamphlets highlighted British victories; so the public mood in Britain was optimistic. Militarily, Britain appeared to be firmly in control. Politically, the government authority was secure, and domestically, stability and normal life continued.
Edward Law, the first Earl of Ellenborough, who later became Lord Chief Justice of England, was born on November 16th.
In December, the war appeared nearly won from Britain’s perspective. It believed it was close to defeating the rebellion in the American War of independence. Reports reaching Britain emphasized American retreats, British control of New York and its surrounding areas, and the campaign of 1776 seemed highly successful overall.
But unknown to the British, events were beginning to turn against them. On 26th December 1776, George Washington launched a surprise attack at the Battle of Trenton giving a major morale boost for the American side.
The year closed with a dramatic contrast between perception and reality. In Britain confidence is at its highest, the war appeared nearly won, and Government authority was secure. But in reality the war was far from over, and momentum was beginning to shift, even though this was unseen in Britain.
A notable marriage took place on December 19th when Charles Stanhope married Lady Hester Pitt, the daughter of William Pitt, first Earl of Chatham, thereby uniting two powerful families.
1776 was a turning point year when Britain shifted from dealing with a colonial rebellion to confronting a full-scale war for its empire, one that would ultimately reshape its global position. It was significant in economics (Adam Smith), in Literature (Edward Gibbon), in Philosophy (David Hume), and in engineering (James Watt and Matthew Boulton).
For most people in Britain, however, life continued as normal. Justice for criminals was swift and brutal, and executions were public and often attended by crowds. The American Revolution of 1776 meant that transportation to North America was no longer possible. This created an immediate crisis, and executions rose considerably as a result.
The war dominated conversation in political and commercial society. And few people were aware of the seismic events that would define 1776 as a year whose importance would reverberate, even to the present day. Few years have matched its significance.
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